Although not much is known about its pre and post historic periods, discovery of arms and implements of ancient and neo-paleolithic age in excavations in Mirzapur, Sonebhadra, Bundelkhand and Sarai Nahar area of Pratapgarh and of Harappan objects in Almgirpur in Meerut take us back to remore antiquity. The finds link its History to early Stone Age and Harappan era. Chalk drawings or dark red drawings by primitive men are extensively found in the Vindhyan ranges of Mirzapur districts. Utensils of that age have also been discovered in Atranji-Khera, Kaushambi, Rajghat and Sonkh. Copper articles have been found in Kanpur, Unnao, Mirzapur, Mathura and advent of the Aryans in this State. It is most probable that snapped links between the Indus Valley and Vedic civilizations lie buried under the ruins of ancient sites found in this State.
In ancient days, the state was known as Brahmarshi Desh or Madhya Desh. The entire region extending up to Prayag in the east bore the name of Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar Pradesh corresponds to this region.
During the later Vedic era it was known as Kosal (Awadh), as per the account of victory of Aryans written in the Shatpath Brahman. Thereafter, the various areas of the states were under kingdoms of Kuru, Panchal, Kashi and Kosal.
After that no record is found until sixth century BC, when we find mention of 16 Janpads of India competing with each other and eight of them were ruling in the geographical area of this state. Those were - Kuru (Meerut, Delhi and Thaneswar) with its capital at Indraprasth (Indropal near Delhi); Panchal (Bareilly, Budaun, and Farrukhabad) with its capital at Ahichhatra (Ramnagar near Bareilly) and Kampilya (Farrukhabad); Vats (area around Mathura) with its capital at Mathura; Vats (Allahabad and nearby area) with its capital at Kaushambi (Kosam near Allahabad); Kosal (Awadh) with its capital at Saket (Ayodhya) and Shravasti (Sahet-Mahet in Gonda district); Malla (District Deoria) with its capitat at Kushinagar (Kasia) and Pawa (Padrauna); Kashi (Varanasi) with its capital at Varanasi; and Chedi (Bundelkhand) with its capital at Shuktimati (Probably near Banda). Besides these, certain republic states were also within the boundries of present Uttar Pradesh like Shakya state of Kapilvastu, Bhagga state of Samsumergiri and Malla state of Pawapuri and Kushinagar.
Ajatshatru of Kashi was great-philosopher king whose superiority was acknowledged by Brahmin scholars like Dripti, Valhaki, Gargya etc. Literatures in various disciplines were authored on an extensive scale during this age culminating in the Upanishads.
The Upanishads were the product of meditation in the Ashrams of the sages, several of which were in Uttar Pradesh. Eminent sages like Bharadwaj, Yajnavalkya, Vashishta, Valmiki and Atri had either their Ashrams here or were otherwise connected with this State. Some Aranyans and Upanishads were written in the Ashrams located in this State.
Uttar Pradesh was known as Brahmarshi Desh or Madhya Desh in the later Vedic Age. The great Indian sages – Bharadwaj, Gautam, Yagyavlkya, Vashishtha, Vishwamitra and Valmiki etc – were living and preaching here during the Vedic times. Several sacred books including the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were also composed here. Ayodhya, Prayag, Varanasi and Mathura were important certres of learning.
The cultural heritage of Uttar pradesh was maintained in the period of the Ramayan and Mahabharat i.e. the epic period. The story of Ramayan revolves round the Ikshwaku dynasty of Kosal and of Mahabharat a round the 'Kuru' dynasty of Hastinapur.
As per the traditional belief the Ashram of Valmiki, the author of Ramayan, was in Brahmavart (Bithoor in Kanpur District) and it was in the surroundings of Naimisharany (Nimsar-Misrikh in Sitapur district) that Suta narrated the story of Mahabharat as he had heard it from Vyasji. Some of the Smritis and Puranas were also written in this State.
Gautam Buddha, Mahavir, Makkhaliputta Goshal and great thinkers brought about a revolution in Uttar Pradesh in 6th century B.C. Out of these, Makkhaliputta Goshal, who was born at Shravan near Shravasti, was the founder of Ajivika sect.
Mahavir, the 24th Tirthankar of Jains had a large number of followers in Uttar Pradesh. He is said to have lived twice during rainy season in this State-once in Shravasti and the second time in Padrauna near Deoria. Pawa proved to be his last resting place.
Jainism was introduced in this State even before the arrival of Mahavir. Several Tirthankars such as Parshwanath, Sambharnath and Chandraprabha were born in different cities in this State and attained 'Kaivalya' here.
The remains of a magnificient Jain Stupa have been dug out near Kankali Tila in Mathura, while Jain shrines built in early middle Age are still preserved in Deogarh, Chanderi and other places.
It was at Sarnath where Buddha preached his first sermon and laid the foundations of Buddhist order. Kushinagar is the place where Buddha breathed his last. His father, King Shuddodhan, was the ruler of a small State, Kapilvastu (now in Siddharthnagar district). His mother, Maya, belonged to the ruling family of another small state, Deodah (now in Deoria district).
Sarnath has the distinction of being the birth place of 'Dhamma' and 'Sangha', the two elements of the Holy Trinity of Buddism, the third being the Buddha himself. Other notable places associated with Buddha are Kushinara of Kushinagar (in Deoria district) where he attained 'Mahaparinirvana, Shravasti the capital of Kisal, and Sankashyar Sankisa (in Etah district).
Besides Buddhism and Jainism, Pauranic Brahmanism also had deep roots in the state. Ancient images of Gods and Goddesses of Brahmanical order has been found in a temple of Kushan period which alludes to Brahmanism. Mathura can be said to be the birthplace of Indian sculpture. Other temples of this faith built in different periods are in Varanasi, Allahabad, Ballia, Ghazipur. Jhansi and Kanpur.
In successive centuries after Buddha, Ayodhya, Prayag, Varanasi, Mathura and several other cities continued to play important role in the making of religious and cultural history in India. Scholars like Ashwaghosh, Kalidas, Ban, Mayur, Diwakar, Vakpati, Bhavbhuti, Rajshekhar, Laxmidhar, Sri Harsh and Krishna Misra adorned the courts of various rulers.
The entire region extending up to Prayag in the east bore the name of Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar Pradesh corresponds to this region. It was considered sacred in Hindu mythology as Gods and heroes, whose deeds are recorded in the Ramayan and Mahabharat, lived here.
Before Christ
All the States were perpetually at war with each other. Kosal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed Vatsa. Kosal and Avanti, in turn, were subjugated one by one by Magadha which became powerful in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and Nand dynasties. The Nandas ruled from 343 B.C. to 321 B.C. The Nand Empire extended almost to the whole of India except Punjab and probably Bengal. It was during their reign that the Alexander invaded India in 326 B.C. Several historians are of the view that the apprehension, that they will not be able to face the forces of the powerful Magadh State, was at the root of Alexander's forces not advancing beyond Beas river, which compelled him to go back. With Alexander's retreat, India witnessed a great revolution. As a result the Nand rulers had to give reins of power to Chandragupta, a scion of the Kshatriya clan "Moriya" of Pippalivana. The whole of Uttar Pradesh enjoyed peace and prospeity during the reigns of Chandragupta, his son Bindusara and grandson Ashok.
The Chinese Travellers Fa-Hien and Yuan-Chawang have seen several rock edicts as well. The Dharmrajika Stupa at Sarnath was also built by Ashok. The downfall of the Magadhan empire began with the death of Ashok in 232 B.C. His grandsons, Dashrath and Samprathi divided the whole Empire among themselves. The entire area south of Narmada became independent and in 210 B.C. Punjab Passed into other hands. The last ruler of this Dynasty was Brihdrath who was assassinated by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shung in 185 B.C. Pushyamitra kept Magadhan empire intact. Patanjali's commentary refers to the seize of Saket (Ayodhya) by the Greeks. Menander and his brother mounted a heavy attack in about 182 B.C. The invading armies accupied Kathiwad in far off south-west, Sagal (Sialkot in Punjab) and Mathura. Later on the invaders laid a seize on Saket (Ayodhya) and advanced far in the Ganga valley. Ultimately, Pushyamitra and his grandson Vasumitra challenged the invaders on the banks of the Sindhu and defeated the Greeks. The invaders retreated and made Sagal (Sialkot) their capital.
For long, Mathura remained a prominent city of Menander's empire.Menander or Milind ruled up to about 145 B.c. Later on, small Indo-Greek and Greek states flourished in Punjab up to the first century of Chistain era. During this period the Shung dynasty was replaced by the danasty in Magadh. It is said that the last king of Shung dynasty was of bad character and he was killed by his minister Vasudev. Vasdev established Kanva dynasty in 75 B.C. by Simuk, the founder of the Satavahana or the Andhra Dynasty. It was at this time that the attention of Central Asian rulers was drawn towards India for the first time. By 60 B.C. they had set up their Kashatraps in Mathura. The first Saka king was Maues who died around 38 B.C. After the Sakas, the Parthians attacked north India and by the beginning of first century A.D. they started defeating the Sakas. The Kushanas also mounted an attack around 40 A.D. The Kushanas too were one of the five Yueh-Chih castes of Central Asia. Soon the Kushanas rulers established their empire right from Central Asia up to the Indus river. Gradually, They occupied the whole of north India.
Kushan Dynasty
Kushan dynasty was established by Kujul Kadphises I. His son and sucessor, Vim Kadphises or Kadphises II had come upto the Ganga valley. His sucessor, Kanishk was doubtlessly the greartest among all Kushan rulers.Stories of war which Kanishk fought with the king of Soked (Saket) have been preserved in the accounts of Chinese and Tibetan historians and several inscriptions and coins found in excavations in extensive parts of Uttar Pradesh indicate that this territory was at sometime part of the Kushan empire. Mathura was at that time a well known centre of art.
The reign of Kanishk and genealogy of Kushan rulers are uncertain. Some scholars are of the view that Kanishk ascended the throne in 78 AD, while some others are of the view that Kanishk ruled between 120 and 140 AD. His capital was Purushpur of Peshawar and other capital was in Mathura. Gandhar, Kashmir and basins of Indus and Ganga Valleys came under his kingdom. After Kanishk his son Huvishk succeeded to the throne and was followed by his son.Vasudev.The empire of the Kushanas was greatly reduced during Vasudev's rule and after him disintegrated and split into several small border kingdoms. With the approach of third century AD, the Kushan sovereignty in Madhya Desh had collapsed and a number of smaller states had once again sprung up in the place. Although the names of some of them are still preserved in the pillar inscription of Samudragupta (4th century AD) at Allahabad, the most powerful dynasty to rule north India during this period was of the Nagas. Another sect of the Nagas, the Bharshivas also rose to power during this period. An idea of their power and the extent of their empire can be had from the fact that they performed ten ashwamedh Yajnas and were anointed with sacred water brought from the Ganga for their coronation.
The history of the period from the middle of the second century up to the rise of the Gupta rulers in the 4th century is very febulous. The Kushanas were losing power and several smaller states has once again started establishing their suverainty. The Panchalas of Ahichhatra had a powerful kingdom which probably extended upto Mathura. The entire area comprising Kumaon and Garhwal and probably extending upto Kulu and Simla hills formed the kingdom of the Kunindas. The remains found in Kashipur and various places in Terai show that it was an important and powerful kindgom. After the decline of the Kushan power, Kaushambi (Kosam near allahabad) probably became independent. A local dynasty reled over Magadh and subsequently the Guptas also emerged from this very region.
Gupta Dynasty
With the advent of the Guptas in 4th century AD, pilitical unity was again restored in India and duing two centuries of their rule, Madhya Desh (Uttar Pradesh) shared general peace and properity with other regions. After the decline of the Gupta empire in 6th century AD, the power was once again decentralised. The Maukharis of Kannauj ruled over a large part of Madhya Desh for some time. They had to contend fiercely with the Gupta kings of Malva. Their last ruler, Grihwarman was defeated and killed about 606 AD by the Malva king Devagupta. After this Grihwarman's ministers handed over the reins of administration to his brother in law Harshavardhan, the king of Thaneshwar.
With the accession of Harsha, the ruling dynasty of Thaneshwar and Kannuaj joined hands. Kannauj became a major city of north India. For centuries, it enjoyed the same prestige which Patalipurta had enjoyed earlier. Because of its grandeur and prosperity, it was known as "Mahodaya Shri" and its possession became the goal of successive Hindu rulers after Harsha (i.e. after 647 AD). The Chinese trabveller, Yuan-Chwang, who visited the country at that time, has given a vivid description of Kannauj. After Harsha, north India was once again thrown in turmoil. It is not possible to construct a coherent history of the period on the basis of available material. Only a few events can be narrated.
Age of Instability
During the first quarter of 8th century AD, Yashovarman established away over Kannauj. He overran almost the whole of India and once again made Kannauj a city of splendour. In alliance with Lalitaditya Muktapid of Kashmir, he also sent his army into Tibet and attained substantial success also but later on Lalitadity dethroned and killed him in 740AD. During the reign of later Ayudh rules, Kannauj became a bone of contention betwen Palas of Bengal, Rashtrakuts of south and Gurjar Pratihars of western India but ultimately the Gurjar Pratihars were successful. The empire that they established was in no way inferior to the empires of any Gupta in its extend and fame. The Gurjar Pratihars held sway over north India during the whole of the 9th and 10th centuries. They were vanquished by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018-19 AD. The Chandel rulers of Jejak-Bhukti of present bundelkhand successfully met the onslaught of Mahmud of Ghazni, thanks to their fortress at Kalinjar. Two Chandel rulers, Dhang and Vidyadhar played a glorious role in the wars with invaders.
After the decline of Pratihars, anarchy once again gripped madhya Desh but rise of Gaharwars at the time helped in restoration of peace and order and a new era a prosperity began in theregion. The two prominent Gaharwar Rulers were Govind Chandra (1104-1154 AD) and Jaichandra (1170 -1193 AD). Due to short-singhtedness of Jaichandra, Chauhan king Prithvaraj III had to face defeat at the hands of Mahammad Ghori at the Battle of Taran in 1192 AD and he himself was defeated and slain at Chhandwar in Etawah next year. Soon, Meerut, Koil (Aligarh), Asani, Kannauj and Varanasi also fell victims to invaders. Though the Chandel ruler Parmardidew (Veer Parmal of folk-lore) was defeated in a battle with Qutub-ud-din Aibak in 1203 AD, the Chandels later retrieved the situation and continued to rule Jeijak-Bhukti, albeit with reduced territory for over about two centuries. Similarly, the distant north hill region also remained safe from the invaders.
Medieval Era
In medieval era, Uttar Pradesh passed into the hands of Muslim rulers which brought a new synthesis of Hindu and Islamic culture.
Ramananda, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas and many other saint poets contributed to the growth of the Hindi, which later became the official language of India.
Varanasi remained a prominent centre of Hindu learning and Jaunpur, under the Sharqi rulers, a prominent center of Islamic culture. Jaunpur was describing as the 'Shiraz' of India. The Sharqi rulers were patrons of music. Brij region was an important center of devotional music in those days.
It was in Uttar Pradesh that 'Sufis' took inspiration from Hindu thought and philosophy. Ramanand and his famous disciple Kabir and other saints like Ravidas, Darya Shah and Guru Gorakhnath were some of the great men of those times who gave a new direction to the life and culture of this State.
Many Madaras and Makatabs were opened for muslim education and Varanasi became the traditional center of Hindu education. Hindi and Urdu literatures developed further and work of translation of Sanskrit books into persian gained nomentum. Tulsidas, Surdas, Keshavdas, Bhushan, Malik Mohammad Jayasi, Raskhan, Matiram, Ghananand, Bihari, Dev and Giridhar Kavirai were some of the great poets who brought into being, laurels to Uttar Pradesh. After the disintegration of the Mughal empire, smaller states which came also pursued a policy of giving patronage to poets and musicians.
Qutub-ud-din Aibak ascended the throne of Delhi in 1206 AD and founded the Slave dynasty. The Slaves and after them, the Khilijis and Tughlaqs gradually extended the frontiers of Delhi Sultanate. The present Uttar Pradesh formed part of their empires. Although Sambhal, Kara and Budaun were given to important feudal lords but by and large the entire State continued to oppose the Sultans of Delhi. The names of Katehar, Kampil, Bhojpur and Patiali stand out prominently in this context. The history of Madhya Desh in 13th and 14th centuries is a saga of brave resistance and barbaric repression stray glimpses of which are found in the works of contemporary historians. Even before the beginning of the end of this period, the empire of Tughlaqs of Delhi had started to disintegrate and in 1394 AD. an independent State was established in the eastern part of this region. It was the Sharqi empire which was foundedin Jaunpur by Malik Sarvar Khwajajahan, a rebel Governor of the Tughlaq ruler. The Sharqi rulers constantly contended with the Sultans of Delhi for 84 long years and did not accept Delhi's suzerainty over Kannauj and border districts.
Four years after the secession of Jaunpur i.e., in 1398 AD, a Chughtai Turk of Samarkand known as Timur of Taimur Lang or Tamerlane, invaded India. Though the brunt of Taimur's barbarism was mainly borne by Delhi and Punjab, the Doab region also did not escape it. For instance, meerut, Harwar and Katehar had to go through a bitter experience of the invasion. Taimur's invasion brought the Tughlaq rule to an end. The last Tughlaq ruler, Mohamamed Tughlq died in 1412 AD heralding the end of the Tughlaq dynasty in Delhi. The Syeds and the Lodies ruled over the remnants of the Delhi empire from 1414 AD to 1526 AD, but most of the Doab continued to be under several Hindu and Muslim chieftains. An important event of the contemporay history was that Sikandar Lodi made Agra his sub-capital.
The Mughal Period
Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Lodi rulers at the Battle of Panipat in 1526 AD and occupied Agra, But even after this, the Afghans continued their resistance in the Ganga valley and Sambhal, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Kalpi, Etawah and Kannauj had surrendered only after a bitter fight. Babar founded the Mughal empire but his son Humayun had to face a crushing defeat at the hands of Afghan chief Sher Shah. The main battlefield in the war between the Mughals and Sher Shah were Chunar, Chausa and Bilgram. Sher Shah himself was killed in 1545 AD fighting the Chandels in his bid to occupy the famous Kalinjar fort. With the death of Sher Shah, a luminous star on the horizon of Mediaeval history had set. After this, a series of important events took place.
Humayun ascended the throne once again and after his death the second battle of Panipat was fought. Akbar ascended the throne in 1556 AD ushering in a new era in Indian history. It was an era of peace, prosperity and strong administration, of liberalism and integration of Hindu and Muslim cultures. This process of integration continued during the period of his successors, Jahangir and Shahjahan. As contemporary Muslim historians observe, the role of Uttar Pradesh in taking 'Hindustan' to the pinnacle of progress, prosperity and glory was significant. Two famous ministers of Akbar, namely Birbal and Todermal, belonged to Uttar Pradesh. Agra continued to be the capital of the Mughal empire till Shahjahan shifted the capital to Delhi. The reversal of this liberal policy by Aurangzeb was a great setback to the Mughal empire. Within a few decades of his death, the mighty Mighal empire was finished. Even during his life time, Bundelkhand had sounded the siren of revolt under Veer Chhatrasal. This war of Bundelas was fought intermittantly for 50 years and Chhatrasal had to accept help of Peshwa Bajirao which helped the Marathas to get a foothold in Uttar Pradesh.
In Avadh the local governor, Saadat Ali Khan declared independenace in 1732 AD and his successors continued to rule up to 1850 AD. Almost simultaneously the Rohillas also established an independent State in Rohilkhand and continued to rule up to 1774 AD, when the then Nawab of Avadh defeated them with the help of East India Company. The Marathas tried for sometime to establish themselves in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, but their defeat at Panipat in 1761 AD put an end to their expansionist ambitions.
Nawabs of Avadh
The British East India Company came into contact with the Avadh rulers during the reign of the third Nawab of Avadh, Shuja-ud-daula (1754-1775 AD). Shuja-ud- daula had entered into an alliance with Mir Qasim, the fugitive Nawab of Bengal, against the Company, In 1784. Mir Qasim was defeated by the British and was forced to cede Kara and Allahabad. Thereafter the Britishers pursued a policy to usurpe large territories by coercing the rulers of Avadh at one time and cajoling them at the other.The territories obtained from the Nawabs in 1775,1779 and 1801 AD and those won by Lord Lake from the Scindia in 1803 AD were initially attached to the Bengal province and were named as Conquered and Ceded Provinces.
In 1816 AD, the districts of present Kumaon, Garhwal and Dehra Dun were taken from the Gurkha invaders under the Treaty of Sanguli and annexed to British territories. The large territory thus formed was made an administrative unit called the North-Western Provinces in 1836 AD. Pursuing a policy of annexing States, Lord Dalhousie ultimately annexed Avadh in 1856 AD and placed it under a Chief Commissioner. The last Nawab of Avadh, Wajid Ali Shah was externed to Calcutta and put on a pension. At the same time Jhansi was also annexed by the British.
The First War of Independence and after
The relations between the Nawabs and the East India Company remind us of the weaknesses of the Nawabs on the one hand and arrogance, might and betrayal on the part of the British on the other. When the British usurped Avadh, it was but natural that there should be a ravolt at the national level. It happened in 1857 A.D. In this revolt, which was, in effect, the first war of Indian independance, the people of Uttar Pradesh played a glorious role. The sense of duty and dedication to the cause of freedom displayed in this historic struggle by Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal of Avadh, Bakht Khan, Nana Saheb, Maulvi Ahmadullas Shah, Raja Beni Madhav Singh, Azimullas Khan and a host of other patriots have made them immortal.
In 1858 AD, the Delhi Division was taken out from the North-Western Provinces and the State's capital was shifted from Agra to Allahabad. On November 1, the same year, political power was tranferred from East India Company to Queen Victoria through a Royal Proclamation. In 1877 AD, the posts of Lt. Governor of North-Western Provinces and Chief Commissioner of Avadh were merged. From then, this large territory was called North Western Provinces of Agra and Avadh. The name was again changed in 1902 AD to United Provinces of Agra and Avadh. It was made a Governor's province in 1921 AD and after some time its capital was shifted to Lucknow.
In ancient days, the state was known as Brahmarshi Desh or Madhya Desh. The entire region extending up to Prayag in the east bore the name of Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar Pradesh corresponds to this region.
During the later Vedic era it was known as Kosal (Awadh), as per the account of victory of Aryans written in the Shatpath Brahman. Thereafter, the various areas of the states were under kingdoms of Kuru, Panchal, Kashi and Kosal.
After that no record is found until sixth century BC, when we find mention of 16 Janpads of India competing with each other and eight of them were ruling in the geographical area of this state. Those were - Kuru (Meerut, Delhi and Thaneswar) with its capital at Indraprasth (Indropal near Delhi); Panchal (Bareilly, Budaun, and Farrukhabad) with its capital at Ahichhatra (Ramnagar near Bareilly) and Kampilya (Farrukhabad); Vats (area around Mathura) with its capital at Mathura; Vats (Allahabad and nearby area) with its capital at Kaushambi (Kosam near Allahabad); Kosal (Awadh) with its capital at Saket (Ayodhya) and Shravasti (Sahet-Mahet in Gonda district); Malla (District Deoria) with its capitat at Kushinagar (Kasia) and Pawa (Padrauna); Kashi (Varanasi) with its capital at Varanasi; and Chedi (Bundelkhand) with its capital at Shuktimati (Probably near Banda). Besides these, certain republic states were also within the boundries of present Uttar Pradesh like Shakya state of Kapilvastu, Bhagga state of Samsumergiri and Malla state of Pawapuri and Kushinagar.
Ajatshatru of Kashi was great-philosopher king whose superiority was acknowledged by Brahmin scholars like Dripti, Valhaki, Gargya etc. Literatures in various disciplines were authored on an extensive scale during this age culminating in the Upanishads.
The Upanishads were the product of meditation in the Ashrams of the sages, several of which were in Uttar Pradesh. Eminent sages like Bharadwaj, Yajnavalkya, Vashishta, Valmiki and Atri had either their Ashrams here or were otherwise connected with this State. Some Aranyans and Upanishads were written in the Ashrams located in this State.
Uttar Pradesh was known as Brahmarshi Desh or Madhya Desh in the later Vedic Age. The great Indian sages – Bharadwaj, Gautam, Yagyavlkya, Vashishtha, Vishwamitra and Valmiki etc – were living and preaching here during the Vedic times. Several sacred books including the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were also composed here. Ayodhya, Prayag, Varanasi and Mathura were important certres of learning.
The cultural heritage of Uttar pradesh was maintained in the period of the Ramayan and Mahabharat i.e. the epic period. The story of Ramayan revolves round the Ikshwaku dynasty of Kosal and of Mahabharat a round the 'Kuru' dynasty of Hastinapur.
As per the traditional belief the Ashram of Valmiki, the author of Ramayan, was in Brahmavart (Bithoor in Kanpur District) and it was in the surroundings of Naimisharany (Nimsar-Misrikh in Sitapur district) that Suta narrated the story of Mahabharat as he had heard it from Vyasji. Some of the Smritis and Puranas were also written in this State.
Gautam Buddha, Mahavir, Makkhaliputta Goshal and great thinkers brought about a revolution in Uttar Pradesh in 6th century B.C. Out of these, Makkhaliputta Goshal, who was born at Shravan near Shravasti, was the founder of Ajivika sect.
Mahavir, the 24th Tirthankar of Jains had a large number of followers in Uttar Pradesh. He is said to have lived twice during rainy season in this State-once in Shravasti and the second time in Padrauna near Deoria. Pawa proved to be his last resting place.
Jainism was introduced in this State even before the arrival of Mahavir. Several Tirthankars such as Parshwanath, Sambharnath and Chandraprabha were born in different cities in this State and attained 'Kaivalya' here.
The remains of a magnificient Jain Stupa have been dug out near Kankali Tila in Mathura, while Jain shrines built in early middle Age are still preserved in Deogarh, Chanderi and other places.
It was at Sarnath where Buddha preached his first sermon and laid the foundations of Buddhist order. Kushinagar is the place where Buddha breathed his last. His father, King Shuddodhan, was the ruler of a small State, Kapilvastu (now in Siddharthnagar district). His mother, Maya, belonged to the ruling family of another small state, Deodah (now in Deoria district).
Sarnath has the distinction of being the birth place of 'Dhamma' and 'Sangha', the two elements of the Holy Trinity of Buddism, the third being the Buddha himself. Other notable places associated with Buddha are Kushinara of Kushinagar (in Deoria district) where he attained 'Mahaparinirvana, Shravasti the capital of Kisal, and Sankashyar Sankisa (in Etah district).
Besides Buddhism and Jainism, Pauranic Brahmanism also had deep roots in the state. Ancient images of Gods and Goddesses of Brahmanical order has been found in a temple of Kushan period which alludes to Brahmanism. Mathura can be said to be the birthplace of Indian sculpture. Other temples of this faith built in different periods are in Varanasi, Allahabad, Ballia, Ghazipur. Jhansi and Kanpur.
In successive centuries after Buddha, Ayodhya, Prayag, Varanasi, Mathura and several other cities continued to play important role in the making of religious and cultural history in India. Scholars like Ashwaghosh, Kalidas, Ban, Mayur, Diwakar, Vakpati, Bhavbhuti, Rajshekhar, Laxmidhar, Sri Harsh and Krishna Misra adorned the courts of various rulers.
The entire region extending up to Prayag in the east bore the name of Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar Pradesh corresponds to this region. It was considered sacred in Hindu mythology as Gods and heroes, whose deeds are recorded in the Ramayan and Mahabharat, lived here.
Before Christ
All the States were perpetually at war with each other. Kosal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed Vatsa. Kosal and Avanti, in turn, were subjugated one by one by Magadha which became powerful in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and Nand dynasties. The Nandas ruled from 343 B.C. to 321 B.C. The Nand Empire extended almost to the whole of India except Punjab and probably Bengal. It was during their reign that the Alexander invaded India in 326 B.C. Several historians are of the view that the apprehension, that they will not be able to face the forces of the powerful Magadh State, was at the root of Alexander's forces not advancing beyond Beas river, which compelled him to go back. With Alexander's retreat, India witnessed a great revolution. As a result the Nand rulers had to give reins of power to Chandragupta, a scion of the Kshatriya clan "Moriya" of Pippalivana. The whole of Uttar Pradesh enjoyed peace and prospeity during the reigns of Chandragupta, his son Bindusara and grandson Ashok.
The Chinese Travellers Fa-Hien and Yuan-Chawang have seen several rock edicts as well. The Dharmrajika Stupa at Sarnath was also built by Ashok. The downfall of the Magadhan empire began with the death of Ashok in 232 B.C. His grandsons, Dashrath and Samprathi divided the whole Empire among themselves. The entire area south of Narmada became independent and in 210 B.C. Punjab Passed into other hands. The last ruler of this Dynasty was Brihdrath who was assassinated by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shung in 185 B.C. Pushyamitra kept Magadhan empire intact. Patanjali's commentary refers to the seize of Saket (Ayodhya) by the Greeks. Menander and his brother mounted a heavy attack in about 182 B.C. The invading armies accupied Kathiwad in far off south-west, Sagal (Sialkot in Punjab) and Mathura. Later on the invaders laid a seize on Saket (Ayodhya) and advanced far in the Ganga valley. Ultimately, Pushyamitra and his grandson Vasumitra challenged the invaders on the banks of the Sindhu and defeated the Greeks. The invaders retreated and made Sagal (Sialkot) their capital.
For long, Mathura remained a prominent city of Menander's empire.Menander or Milind ruled up to about 145 B.c. Later on, small Indo-Greek and Greek states flourished in Punjab up to the first century of Chistain era. During this period the Shung dynasty was replaced by the danasty in Magadh. It is said that the last king of Shung dynasty was of bad character and he was killed by his minister Vasudev. Vasdev established Kanva dynasty in 75 B.C. by Simuk, the founder of the Satavahana or the Andhra Dynasty. It was at this time that the attention of Central Asian rulers was drawn towards India for the first time. By 60 B.C. they had set up their Kashatraps in Mathura. The first Saka king was Maues who died around 38 B.C. After the Sakas, the Parthians attacked north India and by the beginning of first century A.D. they started defeating the Sakas. The Kushanas also mounted an attack around 40 A.D. The Kushanas too were one of the five Yueh-Chih castes of Central Asia. Soon the Kushanas rulers established their empire right from Central Asia up to the Indus river. Gradually, They occupied the whole of north India.
Kushan Dynasty
Kushan dynasty was established by Kujul Kadphises I. His son and sucessor, Vim Kadphises or Kadphises II had come upto the Ganga valley. His sucessor, Kanishk was doubtlessly the greartest among all Kushan rulers.Stories of war which Kanishk fought with the king of Soked (Saket) have been preserved in the accounts of Chinese and Tibetan historians and several inscriptions and coins found in excavations in extensive parts of Uttar Pradesh indicate that this territory was at sometime part of the Kushan empire. Mathura was at that time a well known centre of art.
The reign of Kanishk and genealogy of Kushan rulers are uncertain. Some scholars are of the view that Kanishk ascended the throne in 78 AD, while some others are of the view that Kanishk ruled between 120 and 140 AD. His capital was Purushpur of Peshawar and other capital was in Mathura. Gandhar, Kashmir and basins of Indus and Ganga Valleys came under his kingdom. After Kanishk his son Huvishk succeeded to the throne and was followed by his son.Vasudev.The empire of the Kushanas was greatly reduced during Vasudev's rule and after him disintegrated and split into several small border kingdoms. With the approach of third century AD, the Kushan sovereignty in Madhya Desh had collapsed and a number of smaller states had once again sprung up in the place. Although the names of some of them are still preserved in the pillar inscription of Samudragupta (4th century AD) at Allahabad, the most powerful dynasty to rule north India during this period was of the Nagas. Another sect of the Nagas, the Bharshivas also rose to power during this period. An idea of their power and the extent of their empire can be had from the fact that they performed ten ashwamedh Yajnas and were anointed with sacred water brought from the Ganga for their coronation.
The history of the period from the middle of the second century up to the rise of the Gupta rulers in the 4th century is very febulous. The Kushanas were losing power and several smaller states has once again started establishing their suverainty. The Panchalas of Ahichhatra had a powerful kingdom which probably extended upto Mathura. The entire area comprising Kumaon and Garhwal and probably extending upto Kulu and Simla hills formed the kingdom of the Kunindas. The remains found in Kashipur and various places in Terai show that it was an important and powerful kindgom. After the decline of the Kushan power, Kaushambi (Kosam near allahabad) probably became independent. A local dynasty reled over Magadh and subsequently the Guptas also emerged from this very region.
Gupta Dynasty
With the advent of the Guptas in 4th century AD, pilitical unity was again restored in India and duing two centuries of their rule, Madhya Desh (Uttar Pradesh) shared general peace and properity with other regions. After the decline of the Gupta empire in 6th century AD, the power was once again decentralised. The Maukharis of Kannauj ruled over a large part of Madhya Desh for some time. They had to contend fiercely with the Gupta kings of Malva. Their last ruler, Grihwarman was defeated and killed about 606 AD by the Malva king Devagupta. After this Grihwarman's ministers handed over the reins of administration to his brother in law Harshavardhan, the king of Thaneshwar.
With the accession of Harsha, the ruling dynasty of Thaneshwar and Kannuaj joined hands. Kannauj became a major city of north India. For centuries, it enjoyed the same prestige which Patalipurta had enjoyed earlier. Because of its grandeur and prosperity, it was known as "Mahodaya Shri" and its possession became the goal of successive Hindu rulers after Harsha (i.e. after 647 AD). The Chinese trabveller, Yuan-Chwang, who visited the country at that time, has given a vivid description of Kannauj. After Harsha, north India was once again thrown in turmoil. It is not possible to construct a coherent history of the period on the basis of available material. Only a few events can be narrated.
Age of Instability
During the first quarter of 8th century AD, Yashovarman established away over Kannauj. He overran almost the whole of India and once again made Kannauj a city of splendour. In alliance with Lalitaditya Muktapid of Kashmir, he also sent his army into Tibet and attained substantial success also but later on Lalitadity dethroned and killed him in 740AD. During the reign of later Ayudh rules, Kannauj became a bone of contention betwen Palas of Bengal, Rashtrakuts of south and Gurjar Pratihars of western India but ultimately the Gurjar Pratihars were successful. The empire that they established was in no way inferior to the empires of any Gupta in its extend and fame. The Gurjar Pratihars held sway over north India during the whole of the 9th and 10th centuries. They were vanquished by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018-19 AD. The Chandel rulers of Jejak-Bhukti of present bundelkhand successfully met the onslaught of Mahmud of Ghazni, thanks to their fortress at Kalinjar. Two Chandel rulers, Dhang and Vidyadhar played a glorious role in the wars with invaders.
After the decline of Pratihars, anarchy once again gripped madhya Desh but rise of Gaharwars at the time helped in restoration of peace and order and a new era a prosperity began in theregion. The two prominent Gaharwar Rulers were Govind Chandra (1104-1154 AD) and Jaichandra (1170 -1193 AD). Due to short-singhtedness of Jaichandra, Chauhan king Prithvaraj III had to face defeat at the hands of Mahammad Ghori at the Battle of Taran in 1192 AD and he himself was defeated and slain at Chhandwar in Etawah next year. Soon, Meerut, Koil (Aligarh), Asani, Kannauj and Varanasi also fell victims to invaders. Though the Chandel ruler Parmardidew (Veer Parmal of folk-lore) was defeated in a battle with Qutub-ud-din Aibak in 1203 AD, the Chandels later retrieved the situation and continued to rule Jeijak-Bhukti, albeit with reduced territory for over about two centuries. Similarly, the distant north hill region also remained safe from the invaders.
Medieval Era
In medieval era, Uttar Pradesh passed into the hands of Muslim rulers which brought a new synthesis of Hindu and Islamic culture.
Ramananda, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas and many other saint poets contributed to the growth of the Hindi, which later became the official language of India.
Varanasi remained a prominent centre of Hindu learning and Jaunpur, under the Sharqi rulers, a prominent center of Islamic culture. Jaunpur was describing as the 'Shiraz' of India. The Sharqi rulers were patrons of music. Brij region was an important center of devotional music in those days.
It was in Uttar Pradesh that 'Sufis' took inspiration from Hindu thought and philosophy. Ramanand and his famous disciple Kabir and other saints like Ravidas, Darya Shah and Guru Gorakhnath were some of the great men of those times who gave a new direction to the life and culture of this State.
Many Madaras and Makatabs were opened for muslim education and Varanasi became the traditional center of Hindu education. Hindi and Urdu literatures developed further and work of translation of Sanskrit books into persian gained nomentum. Tulsidas, Surdas, Keshavdas, Bhushan, Malik Mohammad Jayasi, Raskhan, Matiram, Ghananand, Bihari, Dev and Giridhar Kavirai were some of the great poets who brought into being, laurels to Uttar Pradesh. After the disintegration of the Mughal empire, smaller states which came also pursued a policy of giving patronage to poets and musicians.
Qutub-ud-din Aibak ascended the throne of Delhi in 1206 AD and founded the Slave dynasty. The Slaves and after them, the Khilijis and Tughlaqs gradually extended the frontiers of Delhi Sultanate. The present Uttar Pradesh formed part of their empires. Although Sambhal, Kara and Budaun were given to important feudal lords but by and large the entire State continued to oppose the Sultans of Delhi. The names of Katehar, Kampil, Bhojpur and Patiali stand out prominently in this context. The history of Madhya Desh in 13th and 14th centuries is a saga of brave resistance and barbaric repression stray glimpses of which are found in the works of contemporary historians. Even before the beginning of the end of this period, the empire of Tughlaqs of Delhi had started to disintegrate and in 1394 AD. an independent State was established in the eastern part of this region. It was the Sharqi empire which was foundedin Jaunpur by Malik Sarvar Khwajajahan, a rebel Governor of the Tughlaq ruler. The Sharqi rulers constantly contended with the Sultans of Delhi for 84 long years and did not accept Delhi's suzerainty over Kannauj and border districts.
Four years after the secession of Jaunpur i.e., in 1398 AD, a Chughtai Turk of Samarkand known as Timur of Taimur Lang or Tamerlane, invaded India. Though the brunt of Taimur's barbarism was mainly borne by Delhi and Punjab, the Doab region also did not escape it. For instance, meerut, Harwar and Katehar had to go through a bitter experience of the invasion. Taimur's invasion brought the Tughlaq rule to an end. The last Tughlaq ruler, Mohamamed Tughlq died in 1412 AD heralding the end of the Tughlaq dynasty in Delhi. The Syeds and the Lodies ruled over the remnants of the Delhi empire from 1414 AD to 1526 AD, but most of the Doab continued to be under several Hindu and Muslim chieftains. An important event of the contemporay history was that Sikandar Lodi made Agra his sub-capital.
The Mughal Period
Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Lodi rulers at the Battle of Panipat in 1526 AD and occupied Agra, But even after this, the Afghans continued their resistance in the Ganga valley and Sambhal, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Kalpi, Etawah and Kannauj had surrendered only after a bitter fight. Babar founded the Mughal empire but his son Humayun had to face a crushing defeat at the hands of Afghan chief Sher Shah. The main battlefield in the war between the Mughals and Sher Shah were Chunar, Chausa and Bilgram. Sher Shah himself was killed in 1545 AD fighting the Chandels in his bid to occupy the famous Kalinjar fort. With the death of Sher Shah, a luminous star on the horizon of Mediaeval history had set. After this, a series of important events took place.
Humayun ascended the throne once again and after his death the second battle of Panipat was fought. Akbar ascended the throne in 1556 AD ushering in a new era in Indian history. It was an era of peace, prosperity and strong administration, of liberalism and integration of Hindu and Muslim cultures. This process of integration continued during the period of his successors, Jahangir and Shahjahan. As contemporary Muslim historians observe, the role of Uttar Pradesh in taking 'Hindustan' to the pinnacle of progress, prosperity and glory was significant. Two famous ministers of Akbar, namely Birbal and Todermal, belonged to Uttar Pradesh. Agra continued to be the capital of the Mughal empire till Shahjahan shifted the capital to Delhi. The reversal of this liberal policy by Aurangzeb was a great setback to the Mughal empire. Within a few decades of his death, the mighty Mighal empire was finished. Even during his life time, Bundelkhand had sounded the siren of revolt under Veer Chhatrasal. This war of Bundelas was fought intermittantly for 50 years and Chhatrasal had to accept help of Peshwa Bajirao which helped the Marathas to get a foothold in Uttar Pradesh.
In Avadh the local governor, Saadat Ali Khan declared independenace in 1732 AD and his successors continued to rule up to 1850 AD. Almost simultaneously the Rohillas also established an independent State in Rohilkhand and continued to rule up to 1774 AD, when the then Nawab of Avadh defeated them with the help of East India Company. The Marathas tried for sometime to establish themselves in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, but their defeat at Panipat in 1761 AD put an end to their expansionist ambitions.
Nawabs of Avadh
The British East India Company came into contact with the Avadh rulers during the reign of the third Nawab of Avadh, Shuja-ud-daula (1754-1775 AD). Shuja-ud- daula had entered into an alliance with Mir Qasim, the fugitive Nawab of Bengal, against the Company, In 1784. Mir Qasim was defeated by the British and was forced to cede Kara and Allahabad. Thereafter the Britishers pursued a policy to usurpe large territories by coercing the rulers of Avadh at one time and cajoling them at the other.The territories obtained from the Nawabs in 1775,1779 and 1801 AD and those won by Lord Lake from the Scindia in 1803 AD were initially attached to the Bengal province and were named as Conquered and Ceded Provinces.
In 1816 AD, the districts of present Kumaon, Garhwal and Dehra Dun were taken from the Gurkha invaders under the Treaty of Sanguli and annexed to British territories. The large territory thus formed was made an administrative unit called the North-Western Provinces in 1836 AD. Pursuing a policy of annexing States, Lord Dalhousie ultimately annexed Avadh in 1856 AD and placed it under a Chief Commissioner. The last Nawab of Avadh, Wajid Ali Shah was externed to Calcutta and put on a pension. At the same time Jhansi was also annexed by the British.
The First War of Independence and after
The relations between the Nawabs and the East India Company remind us of the weaknesses of the Nawabs on the one hand and arrogance, might and betrayal on the part of the British on the other. When the British usurped Avadh, it was but natural that there should be a ravolt at the national level. It happened in 1857 A.D. In this revolt, which was, in effect, the first war of Indian independance, the people of Uttar Pradesh played a glorious role. The sense of duty and dedication to the cause of freedom displayed in this historic struggle by Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal of Avadh, Bakht Khan, Nana Saheb, Maulvi Ahmadullas Shah, Raja Beni Madhav Singh, Azimullas Khan and a host of other patriots have made them immortal.
In 1858 AD, the Delhi Division was taken out from the North-Western Provinces and the State's capital was shifted from Agra to Allahabad. On November 1, the same year, political power was tranferred from East India Company to Queen Victoria through a Royal Proclamation. In 1877 AD, the posts of Lt. Governor of North-Western Provinces and Chief Commissioner of Avadh were merged. From then, this large territory was called North Western Provinces of Agra and Avadh. The name was again changed in 1902 AD to United Provinces of Agra and Avadh. It was made a Governor's province in 1921 AD and after some time its capital was shifted to Lucknow.